6. What functions does social conflict perform? Explain the nature of social conflict in the developing countries today. (400 Words)

Social conflict is one of the major and recurring themes in sociological analysis.The conflict approach gained in popularity through the works of Karl marx. Later on it was decorated with such studies by lewis koser, ralf Daherendorff and AR Desai.

Social conflict approach looks into power relations in the society . The thinkers argue that due to the presence of power relations , there exist different interest groups alongwith different and cotrasting collective goals.Such relations create inequalities - natural or induced - in the society. And thus arises conflict due to the clash of Ideas , interests and colletive goals.

However , such conflict is not always inimical to society as mis-understood by various groups especially the functionalists. Conflict has a major role to play in initiating social change. It raises voice against inequalities prevalent thereby paving the path for egalitarian order.

Further , social conflict ensures equitable distribution of resources and gives a platform for democratic process to emerge and grow.History is resplendent with instances of conflict leading to major changes. The indian struggle for indepence is a case in point.

Social conflict in developing countries takes various forms from Ideological to revolutionary.For instance , conflicting ideologies have sustained the test of time in India with multitude of political parties have decorated the ruling governments. The presence of racial conflict in south africa resulted in the abolition of apartheid. And conflicts in middle east and North africa in recent times have created revolutionary upheavals.

Nevertheless , conflict as envisaged by Karl mark and its eventuality of communist classless society has beed utopian to say the least . In today's world social conflict questions the established norms in society and strive to direct society towards change.And such interaction between social conflict and social order is continuous and necessary for growth and development of a society.

5. “The personality is formed, maintained and changed as the socialization process moves along.” Explain. (400 Words)

According to Parson the social system changes with innovation and change, it leads to change in individual and adapt to the change which puts him under series of stress and strain.

As the child born, he sees the process of Primary Socialisation in the family and with time he internalizes societies culture, which structures his personality. If this internalization would not take place the society wouldn't exist, it will lead to loss of value and norms. The child personality gets molded to a point where the culture becomes part of him or her. Parson even argued that families are factories which produces personalities. Individual personality is also kept stable through family intervention by providing emotional security.

However, as the person grows up, not only the biological change takes place but also he interacts with other social institutions like school, office, religious place etc. with every place having a different culture, value and norm. The individual need to socialize and internalize them, each institution expects him to perform his new role according to its culture, value and norm.

These institutions ensure adherence through rewards and punishments. This puts an individual under lots of stress and strain, which leads to change in his personality and the institutions ensure its maintenance.

However, the personality changes again with the change in the culture of the current institute or by attending a new institute.

4. Taking clue from Weber’s analysis of the role of Calvinist ethics in the rise of mature capitalism, discuss the relative impact of (a) economic conditions, and (b) values and ideas, on social change.

Capitalism arose in western nations like england and Germany,which experienced what we call the "industrial revolution".the economic conditions led to the growth of capitalism were factory system,new tech of production,new tools and machines made it possible for the capitalists or the owners to earn vast amounts of money.the production process needs to be organised,efficient,disciplined with hardwork,honesty and some business ethics like saving and reinvestment.these virtues are included in spirit of capitalism by weber.

The Calvinist ethics provided the required features with some ideas like time is money,work is worship,honesty is best policy,work is imp and sacred,work is like a mission or calling etc.thus weber described the strong relationship between the spiritual vision of the world and certain style of economic activity.this relationship was conspicuous and healthy among Calvinists.

Hence while economic conditions made possible the capitalism,Calvinists ideas made it proliferating and expedite its growth.both led to change of society from traditional capitalism to rational capitalism in terms of weber,a more than mere a social change.

Note:

There are four values of Calvinism 
1. Material Asceticism
2. Pre-destination
3. Self discipline
4. calling. 
Elaborating them would be a better premise to the answer though ur answer is correct but specific and elaborative approach will fetch good marks

3. Explain as to why and how Durkheim described social reality to the group, not to the individual.

Emile Durkheim , in his pursuit to make sociology a scientific discipline , argued that study of individual is the job of psychology whereas sociology must deal with study of society where individual is just a part.

He described social reality to group because he believed that society is sui-generis and it is over and above individual. Society is more than sum of all individuals part of it . He further says that individual takes birth in society and dies whereas society will remain forever.

The prominence given to group is well reflected in his study of suicide where he claims that the reason for suicide is societal than neurological or individual factors. He went on to analyse the suicide rates across society to substantiate his thesis.

Such explicit importance for society can be seen in his works like "The elementary forms of religious life " where he says that religion is nothing but society itself which contributes to the solidarity amond individuals.

Further , in his division of labour he argues that change in dynamic density and thereby moral density makes may for the emergence of organic solidarity in society.The interdependence on groups for various needs is what preserves order in society.

Thus , the themes which Durkheim dealt has been majorly focused on socity as its central standpoint. And through such works Durkheim was successful in carving a separate niche for sociology as a scientific discipline.

2. Substantiate, citing literature, the view that analysis of social stability and change has been the main concern of classical sociologists. (400 Words)

The studies of Classical sociologists were an outcome of revolutions in late 18th and early 19th centuries. Their focus was mainly on order and change because they were interested to understand the turmoil and were eager to know the reasons for it followed by future consequences.

The trend can be observed in the works of Emile durkheim who wanted to know the reason for order in society . He scouted Religion to find his answers. similarly Karl mark analysed the societies through historical materialism. He advocated the emergence of communism as the goal of social change .

Max weber had a different interpretation of study of society . Through his social action approach , he tried to understand society. Further , he drew a link between religious ethics and emergence of capitalism in his seminal work " The protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism "

Later on Talcott parsons , thorugh his systems approach tried to understand the reason behind the stability in society and explored is such situation is permanent or temporary. His moving equillibrium theory gives an idea about strains in the system and how society adapta to those strains and changes the equillibrium position.

Further , a distinctive analysis was given by GH mead through symbolic interactionist approach. He acted as a bridge between psychology and sociology and gave his theory on the role of self in formulating the society.

Thus , classical sociologists were eager to understand the reasons for societal change and also the basis for stability. For that matter , order and stability are in continuum and development of sociology as an intellectual discipline would not have been possible without exploring the interrelationship between social statics and social dynamics

1. Explain the view that the social system is a basic conceptual model useful in understanding social organization.

Social system and social organisation are two separate concept of sociology, but social system yet acts as the building block of the social organisation. To understand this we first need to understand the attributes of the social system

1. System is unified: Anything viewed as system must be viewed holistically. It is made up of parts called subsystem
2. System is structured: There is a stable pattern of relationship between parts of system. They link in definite and predictable ways
3. A system has goal
4. System has boundary, beyond which the external environment exists
5. System exists in symbiotic interdependence with the environment
6. System has equilibrium tendency: System tries to maintain the equilibrium, with every change, the system again tries to achieve the new equilibrium. It also has internal process of adjustment

Social organisation refers to a pattern of social interaction. Expectations from actors becomes fixed. Actors agree to control themselves on important matters to cooperate. Thus they involve interaction.

Starting from dyads, primary, informal to formal organisation. Each one of them show the characteristics of system, infact the system acts as system built inside the organisation. The organisation is having goals, a structure, existing with external environment and tries to achieve equilibrium with every change. They also need to have the symbiotic relationship with the external environment to exist. For example any organisation can't exist for long without having symbiotic relation with political, sociological, technological etc.

Questions

INSIGHTS © 2014. All Rights Reserved.

Sociology – 2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 1

1. Substantiate, citing literature, the view that analysis of social stability and change has  been the main concern of classical sociologists. (400 Words)
2. Explain the view that the social system is a basic conceptual model useful in  understanding social organization. (400 Words)

Sociology – 2014 – Answer Writing Challenge – 2

1. Explain as to why and how Durkheim described social reality to the group, not to the  individual.
2. Taking clue from Weber’s analysis of the role of Calvinist ethics in the rise of mature  capitalism, discuss the relative impact of (a) economic conditions, and (b) values and  ideas, on social change.

Sociology -2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 3

1.  “The personality is formed, maintained and changed as the socialization process  moves along.” Explain. (400 Words)
2. What functions does social conflict perform? Explain the nature of social conflict in  the developing countries today. (400 Words)

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 4

Write the short notes on the following:

• Pareto on social equilibrium.
• Power and legitimacy
• Role-set and role conflict.
• Totemism and social solidarity

Sociology -2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 5

08 September 2014

Answer in 400 words each:

1. What do you mean by empiricism? Examine the significance of empirical confirmation  in building sociological theory.
2. “Participant observation in many situations is nothing more than a case study.”  Comment.
3. Explain the basic features of the ex post facto research design and assess its role in  sociological research.

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 6

09 September 2014

Write notes on any tow of the following (200 Words)

• Reliability and validity.
• Verstehen method.
• Sources of hypothesis.
• Survey research.

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 7

10 September 2014

Answer in 400 words:

1. Bring out the unity and diversity in the society and culture in India.
2. Describe the different approaches to the study of Indian society and examine fully the  utility of any one of them.
3. Discuss the impact of religious, linguistic, caste and tribal groups on the nation  building process in India.

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 8

11 September 2014

Answer in 250 words:

1. Distinguish between tribe and caste bringing out the implications of the difference for  settlement pattern and community living.
2. Enumerate and explain the factors conducive to joint family and comment on its  prevalence/disappearance in rural India.
3. Enumerate the forces affecting the jajmani system and examine their impact on the  ‘community’ aspect of the village.

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 9

12 September 2014

1. Examine whether the different centres of political power in India are successful as  democratic institutions. (400 Words)
2. Define social stratification and discuss the principles of stratification in the traditional  hierarchy (400 Words)
3. Examine the changing stratification system in modern India in relation to the issues of  equality and social justice. (400 Words)

Sociology – 2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 10

13 September 2014

1. Bring out the impact of education on social mobility and equality with special  reference to the Scheduled castes. (400 Words)
2. Define social change and assess the role of legislative measures in bringing about  social change in India. (400 Words)

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 12

15 September 2014

Write short notes on any two of the following: (200 Words)

• Social movements in post-independence India.
• Industrialisation and social change in India.
• Role of religion in the traditional Indian society.
• Unintended consequences of planned social change in India.

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 13

16 September 2014

1. Distinguish between formal and informal structures of organizations and show how  some of the problems of formal organizations can be better understood in forms of this  distinction. (250 Words)
2. Define ‘social stratification’ and critically examine the view that Marx has “oversimplified  the structure of satisfaction by reducing it to one factor, control of the means of  production.” (250 Words)

Sociology-2014: Answer Writing Challenge – 14

17 September 2014

1. What do you mean by functionalism? Explain Merton’s paradigm of functional  analysis. Does it satisfy the requirements of a rigorous theory?(250 Words)
2. In what ways is organic solidarity different from mechanical solidarity? Does organic  division of labour lead to greater efficiency? Illustrate your view with examples. (250 Words)

Sociology-2014- Answer Writing Challenge – 15

18 September 2014

Answer in 250 words:

1. Examine Pareto’s analysis of the circulation of elites. It is valid for the modern  industrial societies?
2. Distinguish among power, prestige and authority. What are the different ways in  which an authority may gain legitimacy? Why does a changing society face crises of  legitimacy?

Write short notes on ALL the following (each answer should not exceed 200 words):

1. Techniques of Data Collection
2. Ideal Types
3. Social Movement
4. Alienation

Alienation 

Alienation is a feeling of separation or estrangement. The term was first used by Ficht but the concept was first given by Hegel, who said that people feel alienated because they look at things in an incorrect way and feel separated from God.

Marx said that alienation occurs when human being is denied his basic human nature that is performing productive labour creatively in cooperation with others. He also talked about alienation of proliterait class in capitalist society, man feel alienated from the machinery he operates, the products he makes and also alienated from human relationship and social bonds.

Marx views are highly debated by other thinkers. Although Max Weber and Eric Fromm defined alienation more or like Marx but Weber said alienation is much more wide spread in the society and it is acute among bureaucrats. 

C.W. Mills talked about alienation of middle class in his book 'White Collar'. Where as Melvin M Seeman talked about five feelings; powerlessness is when man thinks he can not influence social situation; meaninglessness or feeling that there is no guide for conduct; normlessness means feeling that illegitimate means are used to achieve goals; isolation is feeling separated from cultural goals; self estrangement is when man has not found self fulfilling activities; these are used by Robert Blauner who gave 'inverted u' curve to show alienation among various industries. He said alienation is lowest in cottage industry and highest in mass production industries.

The concept of alienation is constantly evolving and is increasing in contemporary world not only among middle class but also in workers or society at large. There are many reasons for this including anti-dots to alienation are decreasing and now relations are becoming informal and less emotional attachment.

Write short note: Class struggle a conceived by Karl Marx.(200 Words)

Karl Marx idea of class struggle is deeply influenced by Hegel’s dialectic process. Hegel believed in thesis and antithesis both appearing as true comes in conflict which after resolution gives rise to new thesis. Based on this hypothesis, Karl Marx views the evolution of human society based on the internal contradiction between forces and relations of production. When new forces of production comes in conflict with existing relations of production a class struggle develops. Marx sees the uproot of existing relations of production with new relations of production as a social revolution. For e.g. in capitalist societies the age of developing new technology with big factories, plants, mills were on peak. The bourgeoisie class could produce in bulk and have enormous profit but the same income is not uniformly distributed among the proletariat classes. The bourgeoisie class which were in minority acquired enormous wealth whereas the proletariat class which were in majority were considerably living in poverty and misery. The feeling of social consciousness developed among working class which resulted in working class movement. Struggle between capitalist and working class resulted in overthrew of capitalist. Marx viewed overthrew of capitalist as the one where society shifts from capitalism to communism or socialism. So class struggle is main driving force in evolution of human societies.

By me:

Karl Marx's idea of class struggle was influenced by Hegel's idea of dialectics. Marx declared that history of all hitherto societies is history of class struggle. According to Marx, major identifying feature of a society at any given stage of development is its mode of production. It includes forces of production such as land, labor etc and relationships of production i.e. laborer(proletariats) to production process and capitalists(bourgeoisies) to laborers and land etc. To Marx, changes in mode of production i.e. change in instruments of production like new technology or change in relationship of production gives rise to new mode of production thus brings about social change. But this change could not happen if bourgeoisie ideology is not challenged. This ideology promotes false consciousness among workers and they remain class-in-itself. But when proletariats develops consciousness about their relationship to the mode of production as well as sense of belonging to their class, it gives rise to class-for-itself through this subjective criteria. Poliarization of classes leads to revolution against bourgeoisies. Proleetarits finally throw out the prevailing system and seize the power. Gradually, this establishes new forces and relationship of production which over the time develops its own contradictions and leads to another revolution and this goes on until the establishment of communist state where there is no class so no class struggle.   

Give a Critical Review of Emile Durkheim’s Theory on Religion and Society. To what extent does it explain the contemporary scenario in Asia?

Durkheim, the founder of modern sociology has contributed to the study of religion and society. In his essay on “The Elementary forms of Religious Life (1912)”, which deals with clan system and totemism in Arunta tribe of Australian aboriginals, Durkheim has tried to reveal the principles and beliefs in the area of religion. He rejected the reigning theories of origin of religion i.e. Animism by Edward B Tyler and Naturalism by Max Muller because they can not explain universal distinction between sacred and profane. According to Durkheim, by common beliefs, rituals and symbols, religion brings a sense of collective consciousness in society and it integrates the society. He equated the religion to society wherein God was only a symbol or a metaphor but in actual religion was the worship of society and not of God. 

According to Durkheim, the essence of religion is a division of world into two spheres i.e. sacred and profane. Sacred means things which are set apart and require special treatment while profane is reverse of sacred. Sacred things are par excellence which the profane should not and can not touch without impunity. Religion as Durkheim saw and explained it is not any social creation but is in fact society divinized itself.

Most sociologists believe that he has over stated his case. Whilst agreeing that religion is important for promoting social solidarity and reinforcing social values, they wouldn't support the view that religion is worship of society. Moreover, religion has been cause of discord and many bloody conflict. Rise of religious fundamentalism and extremism in contemporary times such as ISIS, al-Qaeda, Heaven's Gate, Khalistan movement, Hindu-fundamentalists etc refutes the Durkheim's assumptions about religion. Also, when Durkheim talks about Religion, he talks about some supernatural force behind anything Sacred but Buddhism and Confucianism had no conception of supernatural,but did allow sufficient reverence for things and persons which they considered sacred. The definition of sacred as stated by Emile Durkheim seems to have lost sense in today’s time as the the religion is not being misused to create disturbance in the democratic setup of the society rather being worshiped.

Write short note: Class-in-itself and class-for-itself (200 Words)

The class-in-itself and class-for-itself are concept coined by Karl Marx in his they of class struggle in capitalist society.

Class-in-itself means the objective criteria of any class. This means people sharing the same relationship to the means of production. For example, all laborers have a similar relationship with the landowners. On the other hand, all the landowners as a class have similar relationship with the land and laborers.

Class-for-itself means the subjective criteria of a class. Any collectivity or human grouping with similar relationship would make a category not a class if subjective criteria are not included. It refers to the members of any one class not only have similar consciousness but they also share a similar consciousness of the fact that they belong to the same class. This serves as the basis for uniting its members for organizing social action. Thus, this similar class consciousness towards acting together for their common interest is what Marx calls class-for-itself. 

Write short note: Alienation. (200 Words)

To Karl Marx, labor or work i.e. production of goods and services holds the key to human happiness and fulfillment. Work is the most important and primary human activity. In his earlier writings, Marx developed the concept of alienated labour. 

Alienation refers to the estrangement of individual from themselves and others. The process of production is one of objectification whereby men make material object which embody human creativity and yet stands as an entity separate from their creators. Alienation occurs when once objectified, man no longer recognizes himself in his product which has become alien to him and is no longer his own. It stands opposed to him as an autonomous power. Marx saw alienation both as subjective state as people feeling of alienation and as a structural category which described the social and economic arrangement of capitalism.  

According to Marx, it involves 4 aspects: Worker's alienation from the object he produces, from the process of production, from himself and lastly from the community of his fellow men. He argues that while labor may produce beauty, luxury and intelligence, for the worker it produces only the opposite i.e. deformity, misery and idiocy.

However, Marx misjudged the extent of alienation in average worker. the great depth of alienation and frustration which Marx 'witnessed' among workers of his days is not typical of today's capitalism. Today, workers tend to identify increasingly with a number of meaningful groups e.g. religious, ethnic, occupational or local. In contemporary times, alienation is more from bureaucracy and mass society that economic exploitation.

Critically analyze the concept of Anomie. Elaborate, with suitable examples, the theoretical relationship between nature of Anomie and types of Social Deviations as have been formulated by R.K. Merton.

The concept of Anomie was first used by Emile Durkheim to refer to several aspects of social participation where the condition necessary for man to fulfill himself and to attain happiness were not present. These conditions were society guided by established norms, morally involved people etc. In this sense, Anomie refers to a situation of normlessness or anarchy where conscience collective is absent and social solidarity is weakened. 

Robert K. Merton uses the term to refer to a state in which socially prescribed goals and norms governing their attainment are incompatible. Merton argues that this incongruity leads to deviant behavior on the part of actors. He maintains that deviance results not from pathological personalities but from culture and structure of society.   the social and cultural structure generate pressure for deviant behavior upon people located in that structure. Merton outlines 5 ways in which member can respond to success goals:

1. Conformity: Conforms to both success goal and normative means to reach them. This is by far the most popular response.
2. Innovation: Rejects the means but turn to innovative or deviant means to achieve success goal. Generally, people from lower strata come into this category.
3. Ritualism: Largely rejects success goals but ardently follows the normative means. This is the characteristic of lower middle class.
4. Retreatism: Psychotics, pariah, out castes, vagrants, vagabonds, tramps, chronic drunkards and drug addicts fall into this classification. The are in society but not for society. They strongly internalize both means and goals, yet not able to achieve them. So, they abandon them both. No particular class is associated with this.
5. Rebellions: Rejection of success goal and institutionalized means and replacement of these by new means and new goals. Example, Naxalites, Urban Guerrillas in Western Europe etc. Generally, rising class comes into this.

Albert K. Cohen criticizes Merton on two counts. He argues that delinquency is collective rather than an individual response to his position in class structure as argued by Merton. Second, Merton fails to account for non-utilitarian crimes such as vandalism and joyriding which do not produce monetary rewards.  

Note: Merton says that deviant may also be conformist as they are functional to society. He says that all bureaucrats are not absolutely corrupt. Some are perpetually corrupt and some are occasionally. At times these corrupt bureaucrats are functional as they complete their work fast and achieve the institutional goals.

Critically examine Weber’s theory of Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism.

In his seminal work, The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism (1904), Max Weber examines the relationship between protestant ethic, specially Calvinism and rise of capitalism. Weber identifies certain unique values embedded in Protestantism which are in harmony with spirit of capitalism. These are

1. Down to Earth pragmatism instead of ritualistic or other worldly orientation
2. Changed attitude towards work - work for the glory of God rather then result of original sin as per Catholics.
3. The concept of calling i.e. every soul is predestined at birth for heaven or hell
4. Protestant Asceticism abstained from pleasure of the world i.e., profit for shake of investment and more profit. Undoubtedly, a condition par excellence for development of capitalism. 

Because of combination of all the above factors which Weber could not find in other religious systems, led to rise of capitalism in Western Europe. 

Karl Kautsky criticised Weber assertion that capitalism was result of Protestantism. He argues that capitalism preceded and largely determined Protestantism. He sees Calvinism developing in cities where commerce and early form of industrialization already established. In his view, Protestantism became ideology of capitalists to legitimize their position. 

Write short note: Division of labour and the differentiation of social structure.(200 Words)

The division of labour is the specialization of cooperating individuals who perform specific tasks and roles. In his seminal work, The Division of Labour in Society (1893), Émile Durkheim observes that the division of labour appears in all societies and positively correlates with societal advancement because it increases as a society progresses. Durkheim hypothesized that the division of labour fosters social solidarity, yielding "a wholly moral phenomenon" that ensures "mutual relationships" among individuals. Durkheim rejects the earlier purely economic interpretation of DoL and applies it as a phenomenon having ramification for entire society. Increased specialization in economic sphere is consquence of social differentiation. He probes relationship between DoL and the manner in which social solidarity comes about and divides society into two categories. Mechanical solidarity society is one where a sense of unity resulting from individuals engaging in similar work who hold shared backgrounds, traditions, and values. DoL is based on ascriptive criteria such as sex, age etc. In such societies conscience collective is very strong but laws are repressive and penal in character. On the other hand, in organic solidarity society individuals engage in different kinds of work that benefit society and other individuals. Durkheim believes that organic solidarity prevails in more advanced societies, while mechanical solidarity typifies less developed societies. Similarly, Durkheim opines that in societies with more organic solidary, the diversity of occupations is greater, and individuals depend on each other more, resulting in greater benefits to society as a whole. 

Marx argued that increasing the specialization may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work. He described the process as alienation: workers become more and more specialized and work becomes repetitive, eventually leading to complete alienation from the process of production. The worker then becomes "depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine". Additionally, Marx argued that division of labour creates less-skilled workers. As the work becomes more specialized, less training is needed for each specific job, and the workforce, overall, is less skilled than if one worker did one job entirely. Among Marx's theoretical contributions is his sharp distinction between the economic and the social division of labour. That is, some forms of labour co-operation are purely due to "technical necessity", but others are a result of a "social control" function related to a class and status hierarchy. If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by power relationships. He also argues that in a communist society, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do.

Explain Karl Marx’s ‘theory of social change’. What are the reactions of functionalists to his views?

The Marxian theory of social change is rooted in the class struggle of the mid-nineteenth century relating directly to the conflict between the dominant (bourgeoisie) and subordinate (proletariat) social classes. Marx and Engels intended to provide a way of thinking that could help the proletariat regain control of their lives. They believed the purpose of economic activity was the satisfaction of human needs and the production of general well-being. However, from their perspective, capitalism counteracted this notion, creating an “us versus them” mentality between the middle and lower classes. And rather than establishing an environment that meets the needs of all its members equally, Marx and Engels saw capitalism as a means to increase the control and wealth of the bourgeoisie, while impoverishing the proletariat. 

Marx and Engels suggest that under a capitalist regime, wage workers would become aware of their disadvantaged position in society. They go on to theorize that this realization of exploitation would lead to a revolutionary “class consciousness,” which would ultimately result in the transformation of the working class. In other words, it is hypothesized that with this newly discovered ”consciousness,” the proletariat would be motivated to rebel against the capitalist order in order to regain control of their lives. Through the organized actions of the working class, then, Marx and Engels argued that the result of class consciousness would ultimately end capitalism.

Functionalist accused Marx of being "economically determinist". That is, the idea that Marxists over-exaggerate the importance of economic relationships; relationships that are seen to determine the shape taken by all other relationships (family, education, friendship, religious and so forth). They point out that Capitalism, as an economic and political system, has proven to be more durable and flexible than Marx maintained. In modern social systems, for example, the advent of Communism does not appear imminent. Critics like Sir Karl Popper have claimed that Marxism is unscientific in its methodology. In particular, he argues that Marxism is not a theory that can be tested and possibly falsified, mainly because it sees the replacement of Capitalism by Communism as "historically inevitable". In this respect, Popper classifies Marxism as a “faith”.

Write a short note on Utility of Reliability and Validity in Social Research

Reliability and validity are two important concepts in social research. Reliability refers to the consistency in measurement. A reliable instrument will produce same result with repeated measurement. Validity, on the other hand, is a condition in which an instrument measures exactly what it is supposed to measure. An instrument may be reliable without being reliable. 

In social research, reliability and validity of measurement is essential. One without other is worthless for the purpose of scientific study. 

Write a short note on caste in Muslims (200 Words)

Caste was for a long time regarded as a structural and cultural phenomenon of Hinduism as the Indology dominated the sociological research.But now with more and increasing emphasis on empirical findings sociologist have recorded castes among many other religions as well with Muslims also.

Earlier when Muslim attacked India due to the egalitarian prophesy of Muslim religion the lower rung castes converted in to Muslims.And as NK Bose suggested they continued to adhere to caste-patterned endogamy and hereditary traditional occupation and thus carried the basics of castiesm into Muslim rungs.

A renowned Muslim scholar Yoginder Sikand wrtites, “The vast majority of the Indian Muslims are descendants of converts from what is today called ‘Hinduism’ and further repeated Bose’s status that they carried endogamy and other basics to Muslims.

Indian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according to Quoms. These Muslims practise a ritual-based system of social stratification. The Quoms who deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest. Studies of Bengali Muslims in India indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status. Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims. Some of the backward or lower-caste Muslim caste include Kunjra, Dhobi and Halalkhor. The upper caste Muslim caste include Qureshi, Shaikh Ansari, Syed, Pathan, Turk, Sheikh and Malik. Genetic data has also supported this stratification.

It seems that four layered caste system (varna system) in strict sense is not observed by ordinary Muslims. Existance of caste among Muslims can be understood by looking at the practice of endogamy within caste, nature of social interaction and representation at religious, social and power places. In Indian Muslim society, it is basically Ashraf (upper caste) or non-Ashraf (lower caste). At some places, categorisation of three levels is also mentioned, namely, Ashraf (equivalent to upper caste), Ajlaaf (equivalent to OBCs) and Arzaal (equivalent to SCs/STs). Sachar Committee Report clearly mentioned the above three categories.

Write a short note on Primary and Reference Groups (200 Words)

Primary Groups

Charles Horton Cooley coined the term Primary Group to refer to an intimate social group with the shared values and common standards of behaviours and frequent direct personal contacts. According to Cooley, the primary group has following characteristics:

1. Relatively small size
2. Face to face association
3. Unspecialized character of that association
4. Relative intimacy
5. Durable relationship

The family, children's playgroup, intimate friendship group and old fashioned neighborhoods are considered to be primary groups. The are characterized by a sense of belonging, emotional warmth and cooperation. the sense of we-feeling fosters a strong identification with the group. Fundamentally, these groups are harmonious and affectionate but competition, self-assertion and passionate contentions also emerged. These passions, Cooley suggests, are socialized by sympathy and come or tend to come under the discipline of common spirit. The individual will be ambitious but the chief object of his ambition will be some desired place in the thoughts of the others in the group. 

Reference Group

Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics. Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. Broadly there two types of reference groups:

Informal groups are not structured with a specific goal in mind. They also interact on a very personal level. Examples of informal reference groups include:

• Families
• A group of local mothers
• Peer groups

Formal reference groups have a specific goal or mission. They also have a specific structure and positions of authority. Examples of formal reference groups include:

• Labor unions
• Mensa, a society for people with high IQ
• Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)

Analyse Marxian theory of social change. Is it useful to comprehend the changes in the developing societies?

Karl Marx believed that the history of hitherto existing societies are the history of struggle. And thus his study of society as a comprehensive whole , was not only to understand it but also a pursuit to change it.

Marx argued , through his approach of historical materialism , about the ills of capitalist society being exploitative and sowing its own seeds of destruction. He says that the emergence of every historical epoch ( from primitive communism to capitalism ) has been the result of internal contradictions within the system. With growth of new forms of energy there is always a struggle between new means of production and old relations of production. This struggle between minority and minority makes way for new mode of production.

Similarly in a capitalist society , labor power has been exploited in relentless pursuit of profit. Proletariats , though alienated , with the fear of going to reserve pool and being jobless are under the influence of bourgeois. However , Marx believed that the modern factory system of production will render homogenization of working class.

Once they come together and realize common problems due to the existing objective conditions , class consciousness replaces false consciousness. This phenomena transforms a situation of class in itself to class for itself.Consequently , the proletariats assemble to overthrow capitalism through revolution.This , Marx argued , would make way for establishing communist classless society.

However , the communist utopia envisaged by Marx has not been turned into reality . His theory had great impact in early part of 21st century when communism was adopted my many countries led by USSR. However , with the fall of USSR and success of capitalism , his dream has few takers.

Nevertheless , the core ideology of Karl Marx is a brilliant methodological tool to comprehend changes in developing societies. The existence of power relations , conflict and dialectics of change can be seen in Indian national movement. A.R Desai opined that it was the material conditions created by Britishers which eventually led to their fall. The revolutionary tendencies are witnessed in Hong Kong , Egypt , Syria and other countries owing to exploitative nature of people in power , albeit their demands are quite different from what Marx thought of.